Proportional Representation Library

The Proportional Representation Library is a source of information on proportional representation elections — including beginning readings, in-depth articles by scholars and activists, and an extensive bibliography. This library was created by Professor Douglas J. Amy, Department of Politics, Mount Holyoke College.

This library is for citizens, activists, politicians, students and anyone else who wants to learn more about proportional representation elections (PR).  PR is probably the best political reform that most Americans have never heard of.  It is the voting system used in the vast majority of advanced Western democracies and it is widely considered to be fairer, more inclusive, and more democratic than the winner-take-all voting system we currently use in the United States.  Adopting PR would help to solve many of the problems currently afflicting American elections, including low turnout, gerrymandering, the two-party monopoly, and the underrepresentation of women and minorities.

Beginning readings

If you are relatively new to the issue of proportional representation and the workings of voting systems, you will want to start your readings here. These articles contain basic information about what voting systems are, what proportional representation is, what the many advantages of proportional representation voting are, and how various proportional representation voting systems work. There is also some useful background material, including a glossary of terms and a survey on the basic kinds of voting systems.

“Should I Be Interested in Proportional Representation?” 
A brief survey to see if proportional representation addresses some of your own political concerns about elections in the United States.

“What is Proportional Representation and Why Do We Need this Reform?” 
Essential reading explaining how proportional representation would cure some of the serious shortcoming of American elections, and exactly why it is superior to our current voting system.

“How Does Proportional Representation Work?” 
A brief explanation of how various forms of proportional representation work, illustrated with ballots.

“Types of Voting Systems” 
A brief survey of the full range of available voting systems, including plurality-majority systems, proportional systems, and semi-proportional systems.

Glossary of Terms 
Specific terminology is used in the discussion of and analysis of voting systems. If you come across in your readings a term you don’t understand, look it up here.

Online resources on proportional representation

For those familiar with the basics of PR, here is a selection of online pieces written by scholars, political commentators, and activists that address some of the various political issues surrounding this electoral reform. The articles are divided into the topic areas listed below.

References to additional articles and books on each of these topics can be found in the Bibliography.

• The Case for Proportional Representation
  • Considerations of Representative Government
  • An Argument for PR from the Right
  • An Argument for PR from the Left
  • Instant Runoff Voting: No Substitute for Proportional Representation
  • Proportional Representation vs. Single-Member Districts in States
• PR and the Representation of Minorities
  • Fair Representation for Racial Minorities: Is Proportional Representation the Answer?
  • How Proportional Representation Can Empower Minorities and the Poor
  • Proportional Representation: Next Step for Democracy
  • A Voting Rights Act at War With Itself
• PR and the Representation of Women
  • “Ain’t I A Voter?” Voting Rights for Women
  • How Can We Get More Women Elected?
• PR and Parties
  • The Case for a Better Election System
  • How Proportional Representation Would Help Republicans and Democrats
  • Proportional Representation and the Libertarian Party
  • Standing on the Threshold of a Third Party Dream
• PR and Redistricting
  • How Proportional Representation Would Finally Solve Our Redistricting and Gerrymandering Problems
• The History of PR in the United States
  • A Brief History of Proportional Representation in the United States
  • Communism, Race, and the Defeat of Proportional Representation in Cold War America
  • On the Representation of Minorities of Electors to Act with the Majority in Elected Assemblies
• Criticisms of PR
  • Common Criticisms of PR and Responses to Them
  • Proportional Representation: Destabilizing Idea
  • Proportional Representation: The Key to Democracy

Books on Proportional Representation

If you are interested in a more complete and extended analysis of the issues surrounding PR, you may want to order some of the following books. Click on these entries to see more information on these books and how to order them.

• Douglas J. Amy, Real Choices/New Voices: How Proportional Representation Elections Could Revitalize American Democracy (Second Edition) This remains the definitive book on the subject.  This newly revised edition explains how PR would ensure fair representation for all voters, eradicate gerrymandering, encourage issue-oriented campaigns, break the two-party monopoly, give fairer representation for women and minorities, and encourage higher voter turnout. From Columbia University Press. 
  
• Steven Hill, Fixing Elections:  The Failure of America’s Winner-Take-All Politics.  An incisive, provocative, and very readable critique of single-member plurality elections.  Hill chronicles all the various ways that this winner-take-all approach undermines democracy in the U.S. and identifies proportional representation as the most effective solution to these problems.
  
• Shaun Bowler, Todd Donovan, and David Brockington, Electoral Reform and Minority Representation: Local Experiments with Alternative Elections. A very useful and well-done study published by Ohio State University Press.  The authors examine the results of a semi-proportional form of elections — cumulative voting — which is now used in several dozen cities and counties in the U.S.   Not surprisingly, they find that this alternative is a better way to ensure fair representation for racial and ethnic minorities than our current winner-take-all system.
  
• Kathleen Barber, A Right to Representation: Proportional Election Systems for the Twenty-first Century.  In this book, an outgrowth of her earlier Proportional Representation and Electoral Reform in Ohio, Barber explores the origins of PR systems, explains their use and adaptability, and supplies empirical evidence of how they actually work in practice.
  
• Douglas J. Amy, Behind the Ballot Box:  A Citizen’s Guide to Voting Systems. A comprehensive and objective guide to all voting systems, this books includes not only information about proportional representation voting systems, but also semi-proportional systems, and the plurality/majority voting systems that are currently used in the U.S.  The book also includes a set of  criteria for evaluating voting systems, an explanation of the workings of each system, and a discussion of their various political advantages and disadvantages.
  
• Robert Richie and Steven Hill,  Whose Vote Counts?  The authors, both from the Center for Voting and Democracy, argue that  we need a new way of electing our representatives to combat voter apathy and the leveling of political views.  That new way is proportional representation.  Leading activists and scholars, including Cynthia McKinney, John Ferejohn, and Daniel Cantor, respond. Harvard law professor Lani Guinier writes the foreword. 
  
• Mark E. Rush and Richard L. Engstrom , Fair and Effective Representation?  Debating Electoral Reform and Minority Rights.  While the primary focus of this book is on the use of electoral reform to better represent racial and ethnic minorities, it turns into a wider debate about the whether proportional representation is preferable to single-member district plurality elections in the United States.
  
• Henry Milner (editor), Making Every Vote Count: Reassessing Canada’s Electoral System.   A collection of articles critically examining Canada’s current first-past-the-post electoral system and the case made for switching to proportional representation.  
  
• Nick Loenen, Citizenship and Democracy:  A Case for Proportional Representation.Canada is another country burdened with the winner-take-all approach to elections. This book argues persuasively for the adoption of PR and considers the effect it might have on Canadian politics.

Bibliography

This bibliography contains references to published materials on the issue of proportional representation elections — focusing primarily on the United States. Many of these articles and books are by scholars in the field of electoral systems, and contain more reliable information and deeper analysis than is often found in readily available on-line sources.  If you are really serious about learning about PR, you need to delve into these sources.  Do not be put off by what might appear to be dated materials.  The evidence and arguments in these sources are still valid today.

The bibliography is divided into the sections listed below. Individual entries may appear in more than one section.

General Works on Electoral Systems

AMY, DOUGLAS. Behind the Ballot Box:  A Citizen’s Guide to Voting Systems.  New York:  Praeger Publishing, 2000.

BOGDANOR, VERNON and DAVID BUTLER. Democracy and Elections: Electoral Systems and Their Political Consequences. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

BOIX, CARLES. “Setting the Rules of the Game:  The Choice of Electoral Systems in Advanced Democracies.”  American Political Science Review 93 no. 3 (Sept. 1999) p. 609-24.

BRAMS, STEVEN J. and PETER C. FISHBURN, Approval Voting (Boston: Birkhauser, 1983).

COSSOLOTTO, MATTHEW. The Almanac of European Politics 1995.   Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1995.

DARCY, R., SUSAN WELCH, and JANET CLARK. Women, Elections, and Representation. New York: Longman, 1987.

FARRELL, DAVID M. Comparing Electoral Systems. New York: Prentice Hall, 1997.

FARRELL, DAVID, MALCOLM MACKERRAS, and IAN MCALLISTER. “Designing Electoral Institutions: STV Systems and their Consequences.” Political Studies (1996) XLIV, 24-43.

GROFMAN, BERNARD. “Alternatives to Single-Member Plurality Districts: Legal and Empirical Issues.” Policy Studies Journal, special issue 3 (1980-81): 875-98.

GROFMAN, BERNARD, ed. Toward Fair and Effective Representation: Political Gerrymandering and the Courts. New York: Agathon, 1990.

GROFMAN, BERNARD and AREND LIJPHART, eds. Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences. New York: Agathon, 1986.

KATZ, RICHARD S. A Theory of Parties and Electoral Systems. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.

LAKEMAN, ENID. Power to Elect: The Case for Proportional Representation. London: Heinemann, 1982.

LAKEMAN, ENID and JAMES LAMBERT. Voting in Democracies. London: Faber and Faber, 1959.

LEDUC, LAWRENCE, RICHARD NIEMI, and PIPPA NORRIS, eds.  Comparing Democracies:  Elections and Voting in Global Perspective.  Thousand Oaks, CA:  Sage Publications, 1996.

LIJPHART, AREND. Patterns of Democracy: Government forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.

LIJPHART, AREND. Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945-1990. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

LIJPHART, AREND. “Constitutional Choices for New Democracies.” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 72-84.

LIJPHART, AREND. “Double-Checking the Evidence.” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 3 (Summer 1991): 42-48.

LIJPHART, AREND. “The Pattern of Electoral Rules in the United States: A Deviant Case Among the Industrialized Democracies.” Government and Opposition 20 (Winter 1985), 18-28.

LIJPHART, AREND. “The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws, 1945-1985.” American Political Science Review 84, no. 2 (June 1990): 481-96.

LIJPHART, AREND and BERNARD GROFMAN, eds. Choosing an Electoral System: Issues and Alternatives. New York: Praeger, 1984.

MACKIE, TOM and RICHARD ROSE. International Almanac of Electoral History. Glasgow, Scotland: Center for the Study of Public Policy, University of Strathclyde, 1997.

NORRIS, PIPPA. Choosing electoral Systems:  Proportional, Majoritarian, and Mixed Systems.”  International Political Science Review 18, no. 3 (July 1997), p. 297.

POWELL, G. BINGHAM.   Elections as a Tool of Democracy:  Majoritarian and Proportional Visions. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000.

RAE, DOUGLAS W. The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1971.

REYNOLDS, ANDREW and BEN REILLY.  The International IDEA Handbook of Electoral System Design.  Stockholm, Sweden: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 1997.

ROYAL COMMISSION ON THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM. Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System: Towards a Better Democracy. Wellington, New Zealand: V.R. Ward, Government Printer, 1986.

TAAGEPERA, REIN and MATTHEW SOBERG SHUGART. Seats and Votes: The Effects and Determinants of Electoral Systems. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989.

ZIMMERMAN, JOSEPH F. “Alternative Local Election Systems.” National Civic Review 79, no. 1 (January-February 1990): 23-36.

Proportional Representation and the Representation of Women

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Real Choices/New Voices: How Proportional Representation Elections Could Revitalize American Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Chapter 6.

BARKMAN, KERSTIN. “Politics and Gender: The Need for Electoral Reform.” Politics, Vol. 15, No. 3 (1996): 141-146.

BRICHTA, AVRAHAM AND YAEL BRICHTA. “The Extent of the Impact of the Electoral System upon the Representation of Women in the Knesset,” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

HOECKER, BEATE. “The German Election System: A Barrier to Women?” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION. Distribution of Seats Between Men and Women in National Parliaments: Statistical Data from 1945 to 30 June 1991. Geneva: Inter-Parliamentary Union, 1991.

JONES, MARK. “Gender Quotas and PR in Argentina: Increasing Women’s Representation.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 176.

JONES, MARK and PATRICIO NAVIA. “Assessing the Effectiveness of Gender Quotas in Open-List Proportional Representation Electoral Systems.” Social Science Quarterly 80, no.2, p. 341.

KARAM, AZZA.  Women in Parliament:  Beyond the Numbers.  Stockholm, Sweden:  International IDEA, 1998.

MATLAND, RICHARD. E. “Enhancing Women’s Political Participation:  Legislative Recruitment and Electoral Systems” in Azza Karam,  Women in Parliament:  Beyond the Numbers.  Stockholm, Sweden:  International IDEA, 1998.

MATLAND, RICHARD E. and DONLEY STUDLAR. “The Contagion of Women Candidates in Single-Member Districts and Proportional Representation Electoral Systems: Canada and Norway.” The Journal of Politics. Vol. 58, No. 1 (1996): 707.

McNEELY, THEODORE. “`Woman Power’ in Japan’s 1989 Upper House Election,” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

RULE, WILMA. “Electoral Systems, Contextual Factors and Women’s Opportunity for Election to Parliament in Twenty-Three Democracies.” Western Political Quarterly (September 1987), 40(3):477-498.

RULE, WILMA. “Multimember Legislative Districts: Minority and Anglo Women’s and Men’s Recruitment Opportunity,” in Wilma Rule and Joseph Zimmerman (eds.), United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

RULE, WILMA AND MATTHEW SHUGART. “The Preference Vote and Election of Women: Women Win More Votes in Open List PR.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 177-178.

RULE, WILMA AND JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN. Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

RULE, WILMA and JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN. United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

RULE, WILMA and PIPPA NORRIS, “Anglo and Minority Women’s Representation in Congress: Is the Electoral System the Culprit?” in Wilma Rule and Joseph Zimmerman (eds.), United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

RYDON, JOAN. “Representation of Women and Ethnic Minorities in the Parliaments of Australia and New Zealand,” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

WEAVER, LEON. “Women and Minorities in the Proportional Representation System of New York Community School Boards.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, September 1989.

PR and the Representation of Minorities

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Real Choices/New Voices: How Proportional Representation Elections Could Revitalize American Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Chapter 5.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. “District Shapes and Interest Representation.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 87-90.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. “Proportional Representation: A Tool for Empowering Minorities and the Poor.” Poverty and Race, Vol.3, No. 5 (Sept./Oct. 1994), 1-2,10. Washington, D.C.: Poverty and Race Research Council.

ANDERSON, JOHN. “A Better Approach to Boosting Minority Representation?” The Christian Science Monitor, July 6, 1993, 18.

ANDERSON, JOHN. “A Way to End `Political Apartheid.'” USA Today, August 3, 1994, p. 9A.

APPLEBOME, PETER. “Guinier Ideas, Once Seen as Odd, Now Get Serious Study.” The New York Times, April 3, 1994, E5.

BOWLER, SHAUN, Todd Donovan, David Brockington, and Sheila Mello.  Electoral Reform and Minority Representation: Local Experiments With Alternative Elections.  Ohio State University Press, 2003.

BRIFFAULT, RICHARD. “Lani Guinier and the Dilemmas of American Democracy.” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 95, 1995, 418-472.

BRISCHETTO, ROBERT. “Cumulative Voting and Latino Representation:  Exit Surveys in Fifteen Texas Communities.” Social Science Quarterly 78, no.4, p. 973.

BRISCHETTO, ROBERT. “Cumulative Voting at Work in Texas.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 61-65.

BRISCHETTO, ROBERT. “Cumulative Voting as an Alternative to Districting: An Exit Survey in 16 Texas Communities.” Poverty and Race. Vol. 4, No. 5 (Sept./Oct. 1995), 5-8. Washington, D.C.: Poverty and Race Research Council.

BROCKINGTON, DAVID, TODD DONOVAN and SHAUN BOWLER. “Minority Representation under Cumulative and Limited Voting.” The Journal of Politics 60, no. 4 (Nov. 1998), p. 1108-25.

BUCKLEY, STEPHEN. “Unusual Ruling in Rights Case: Md. County Must Use Cumulative Voting,” The Washington Post, April 6, 1994.

BURNHAM, ROBERT. “Reform, Politics, and Race in Cincinnati: Proportional Representation and the City Charter Committee, 1924-1959.” Journal of Urban History. Vol. 23, No. 2 (1997): 131.

COHEN, FRANK. “Proportional versus Majoritarian Ethnic Conflict Management in Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies. Vol. 30. (October 1997), 607-30.

COLE, RICHARD and DELBERT TAEBEL. “Cumulative Voting in Local Elections: Lessons from the Alamagordo Experience.” Social Science Quarterly 73, no. 1 (March 1992): 194-201.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD L. “Modified Multi-Seat Election Systems As Remedies for Minority Vote Dilution.” Stetson Law Review, Vol. 21, No. 3, Summer 1992, 743-770.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD L. “Alternative Judicial Election Systems: Solving the Minority Dilution Problem,” in Wilma Rule and Joseph Zimmerman (eds.), United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD L. “The Single Transferable Vote: An Alternative Remedy for Minority Vote Dilution.” University of San Francisco Law Review, Vol. 27, Summer 1993, 781-813.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD and CHARLES BARRILLEAUX, “Native Americans and Cumulative Voting: The Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux.” Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 72, No. 2, June 1991, pp. 388-393.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD, DELBERT A. TAEBEL, and RICHARD COLE. “Cumulative Voting as a Remedy for Minority Vote Dilution: The Case of Alamogordo, New Mexico.” Journal of Law and Politics 5 (1989): 469-97.

GUINIER, LANI. The Tyranny of the Majority: Fundamental Fairness in Representative Democracy. New York: Free Press, 1994.

GUINIER, LANI. “The Task Ahead: Breathing New Life into American Democracy.” Chapter nine in Lift Every Voice. New York:Simon and Schuster, 1998.

GUINIER, LANI. “Don’t Scapegoat the Gerrymander,” The New York Times Magazine, January 8, 1995, 36-37.

GUINIER, LANI. “The Triumph of Tokenism: The Voting Rights Act and the Theory of Black Electoral Success. Michigan Law Review, Vol. 89, No. 5, March 1991, 1077-1154.

HERTZBERG, HENDRIK. “Along Racial Lines.” The New Yorker, April 4, 1994, 7.

HILL, STEVEN. “Warring for the Heart of the Voting Rights Act.” The Christian Science Monitor, June 25, 1996.

HOFFMAN, MATTHEW. “Time to Scrap District-Based Voting.” Roll Call, June 27, 1996.

ISSACHAROFF, SAMUEL and RICHARD PILDES.  “All for One:  Can Cumulative Voting Ease Racial Tensions? The New Republic (Nov. 18, 1996) p. 10.

KAPLAN, DAVID. “Alternative Election Methods: A Fix for a Besieged System?” Congressional Quarterly, April 2, 1994, 812-813.

KIRKSEY, JASON, et al. “Cumulative Voting in Alabama County.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 67-68.

MCKINNEY, CYNTHIA. “Keep It Simple.” Boston Review, March/April 1998. http://www-polisci.mit.edu/bostonreview/BR23.1/

MULROY, STEVEN. “When the U.S. Government Endorses PR: Just Department Positions on Alternative Electoral Schemes.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 99-102.

THE NATION. “Wronging Voting Rights.” The Nation. July 8, 1996. Editorial.

PAGE, CLARENCE. “When Votes Start to Really Matter.” Chicago Tribune, July 2, 1995, op-ed page.

PILDES, RICHARD and DONOGHUE, KRISTEN. “Cumulative Voting in the United States.” The University of Chicago Legal Forum, Vol. 1995, 241-313.

PILDES, RICHARD H. “Gimme Five.” The New Republic, March 1, 1993, 16-17.

PILLSBURY, GEORGE. “Voting Block.” The Nation, October 24, 1994, 445.

RASPBERRY, WILLIAM. “Super Districts — Without the Image Problem.” Washington Post, June 27, 1996.

RASPBERRY, WILLIAM. “The Balkanization of America.” The Washington Post, July 7, 1995, op-ed page.

RASPBERRY, WILLIAM. “Super Districts — Without the Image Problem.” The Washington Post, June 27, 1996.

REDING, ANDREW. “Making Every Vote Really Count.” Los Angeles Times, July 17, 1994, M5.

RICHIE, ROBERT. “Cumulative Voting Captures Imagination of Electoral Reformers.” National Civic Review, Winter 1993, 72-74.

RICHIE, ROBERT. “Preference Voting vs. Cumulative Voting: Preference Voting is the Better System for Local Government.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 73-76.

ROSENKRANZ, E. JOSHUA. “Solving the Race Problem.” Boston Review, March/April 1998. http://www-polisci.mit.edu/bostonreview/BR23.1/

RULE, WILMA AND JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN (eds.). Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

RULE, WILMA and JOSEPH F. ZIMMERMAN. United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

RUSH, MARK, Richard Lee Engstrom and Bruce E. Cain. Fair and Effective Representation? New York:  Rowman and Littlefield, 2001.

SHUGART, MATTHEW S. “Minorities Represented and Unrepresented” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

STILL, EDWARD, “Cumulative Voting and Limited Voting in Alabama,” in Wilma Rule and Joseph Zimmerman (eds.), United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

STILL, EDWARD. “Alternatives to Single Member Districts.” In Minority Vote Dilution, edited by Davidson, 249-67. Washington D.C.: Howard University Press, 1984.

STILL, EDWARD and PAMELA KARLAN. “Cumulative Voting and the Voting Rights Act: Amicus Curiae in a Maryland Voting Rights Case.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 91-95.

STILL, EDWARD and PAMELA KARLAN. “Cumulative Voting as a Remedy in Voting Rights Cases.” National Civic Review Vol. 84 (Fall/Winter 1995): 337-346.

TAAGEPERA, REIN. “Beating the Law of Minority Attrition,” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

TAEBEL, DELBERT A., RICHARD ENGSTROM and RICHARD COLE. “Alternative Electoral Systems as Remedies for Minority Vote Dilution,” Hamline Journal of Public Law and Policy, Vol. 11, Spring 1990, pp. 19-29.

THOMAS, CLARENCE. “Justice Thomas on Proportional Voting Systems: Excerpts from Concurring Opinion in Holder v. Hall. In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), p. 108.

TIMPONE, RICHARD. “Electoral Systems Matter: An Experimental Examination of Different Systems.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 69-72.

USA TODAY, “Achieving Fairness at Polls Demands Creative Thinking.” USA Today, June 21, 1996: Editorial.

USA TODAY, “A Route to Fairer Voting.” USA Today, June 30, 1995, p. 12A.

VAN BIEMA, DAVID. “One Person, Seven Votes.” Time, April 25, 1994, 42-43.

WEAVER, LEON and JUDITH BAUM, “Proportional Representation on New York City Community School Boards,” in Wilma Rule and Joseph Zimmerman (eds.), United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

ZIMMERMAN, JOSEPH F., “Enhancing Representational Equity in Cities,” in Wilma Rule and Joseph Zimmerman. United States Electoral Systems: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. New York: Greenwood Press, 1993.

Introductory Readings

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Real Choices/New Voices: How Proportional Representation Elections Could Revitalize American Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Behind the Ballot Box:  A Citizen’s Guide to Voting Systems.  Praeger Publishers, 2000.

BARBER, KATHLEEN.  The Right To Representation: Proportional Election Systems for the 21st Century. Ohio State University Press, 2000.

HILL, STEVEN. Fixing Elections: The Failure of America’s Winner-Take-All Politics.  New York: Routledge, 2002.

RICHIE, ROB, STEVEN HILL, et al. Whose Vote Count?  Boston:  Beacon Press, 2001.

The History of Proportional Representation in the United States

AMY, DOUGLAS J. ‘The Forgotten History of the Single Transferable Vote in the United States.”Representation 34, No.1 (Winter 1996/97), 13-20.

ANDERSON, DENNIS. “PR in Toledo: The Neglected Stepchild of Municipal Reform.” In Kathleen Barber (ed.), Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1995. 241-281.

BARBER,  KATHLEEN.  A Right to Representation: Proportional Election Systems for the Twenty-first Century. Columbus, OH: Ohio University Press, 2000.

BARBER, KATHLEEN (ed.). Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1995.

BARBER, KATHLEEN. “PR and Boss Rule: The Case of Cleveland.” In Kathleen Barber (ed.), Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1995. 116-159.

BLAIR, GEORGE S. Cumulative Voting: An Effective Electoral Device in Illinois Politics.Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1960.

BURNHAM, ROBERT. “Reform, Politics, and Race in Cincinnati: Proportional Representation and the City Charter Committee, 1924-1959.” Journal of Urban History. Vol. 23, No. 2 (1997): 131.

BUSCH, RONALD J. “Ashtabula: The Pioneer Community.” In Kathleen Barber (ed.), Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1995. 83-115.

GERSON, SIMON W. Pete: The Story of Peter V. Cacchione, New York’s First Communist Councilman. New York: International Publishers, 1977.

GOTTLIEB, MARTIN. “The ‘Golden Age’ of the City Council.” New York Times, August 11, 1991, p. E6.

HALLETT, GEORGE H. Proportional Representation: The Key to Democracy. New York: National Municipal League, 1940.

HARRIS, JOSEPH P. “Practical Workings of Proportional Representation in the United States and Canada.” National Municipal Review 19, no. 5 (May 1930): 337-83.

HOAG, CLARENCE G. and GEORGE H. HALLETT, JR. Proportional Representation. New York: Macmillan, 1926.

KOLESAR, ROBERT J. “PR in Cincinnati: From ‘Good Government’ to the Politics of Inclusion.” In Kathleen Barber (ed.), Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1995. 160-208.

Proportional Representation Review. Published quarterly from 1914 to 1931 by the Proportional Representation League and continued as a column in the National Civic Review from 1932 to 1962. Numerous articles describing the rise and fall of PR in U.S. cities.

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ZELLER, BELLE and HUGH BONE. “The Repeal of PR in New York City: Ten Years in Retrospect.” American Po

Proportional Representation in Other Countries 

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BOGDANOR, VERNON. What is Proportional Representation? Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1984.

BOGDANOR, VERNON. “Governing Under Proportional Representation:  Lessons from Europe.” Australian Journal of Political Science 34, no. 3, (Nov. 1999), pp. 448.

BOGDANOR, VERNON. “Electoral Reform and British Politics.” Electoral Studies 6 (1987), 115-21.

BOGDANOR, VERNON. “Offering the Illusion of Reform.” New Statesman and Society, November 1, 1991, p. 29.

BOGDANOR, VERNON. What is Proportional Representation? Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1984.

BOSTON, JONATHAN. “Electoral Reform in New Zealand: The Report of the Royal Commission.” Electoral Studies 6 (1987): 105-14.

BOWLER, SHAUN, TODD DONOVAN and DAVID FARRELL. “Party Strategy and Voter Organization under Cumulative Voting in Victorian England”.  Political Studies 47 no. 5, (Dec. 1999) p. 906-17.

BOWLER, SHAUN and DAVID FARRELL. “Voter Behavior Under STV-PR: Solving the Puzzle of the Irish Party System.”Political Behavior Vol. 13. No. 4: 303-20.

BOWLER, SHAUN. “Party Loyalties in Complex Settings: STV and Party Identification.” Political Studies 1991, Vol 39, No. 2: 350-62.

BULL, MARTIN and JAMES L. NEWELL, “Electoral Reform in Italy: When Consequences Fail to Meet Expectation.” Representation 34, No.1 (Winter 1996/97), 53-61.

CATT, HELENA. “New Zealanders Adapt to MMP: Party Realignment in Preparation for 1996 Elections.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 171-172.

COHEN, FRANK. “Proportional versus Majoritarian Ethnic Conflict Management in Democracies.” Comparative Political Studies. Vol. 30. (October 1997), 607-30.

DUNLEAVY, PATRICK, HELEN MARGETTS, and STUART WEIR. “Proportional Representation in Action: A Report on Simulated PR Election in Great Britain in 1992.” Representation 2, no. 113: 14-18.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD. “District Magnitude and Election of Women to the Irish Dail.” Electoral Studies 2 (1987): 123-32.

GEORGHIOU, MARY. “Electoral Reform in the UK: “Alive in ’95.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), p. 194.

GEORGHIOU, MARY and MARTIN LINTON. Arguments for Electoral Reform. Guilford, U.K.: Labour Campaign for Electoral Reform, 1991. Photocopy.

FARRELL, DAVID, MALCOLM MACKERRAS, and IAN MCALLISTER. “Designing Electoral Institutions: STV Systems and their Consequences.” Political Studies (1996) XLIV, 24-43.

“Good Government? Fairness? Or Vice Versa. Or Both.” The Economist, May 1, 1993, 19-21.

HOLME, RICHARD and HILARY MUGGRIDGE. The Fair Votes Guide: Facts, Figures and Arguments About Electoral Reform. London: Campaign for Fair Votes, 1988.

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ISHIYAMA, JOHN. “Electoral System Experimentation in the New Eastern Europe: The Single Transferable Vote and the Additional Member System in Estonia and Hungary.” Eastern European Quarterly Vol. 29 (Jan. 1996): 487-507.

KARP, JEFFREY and SUSAN A. BANDUCCI. “The Impact of Proportional Representation on Turnout:  Evidence from New Zealand. Australian Journal of Political Science 34 no. 3, (Nov. 1999), p. 363.

KATZ, RICHARD. “Electoral Reform and the Transformation of Party Politics in Italy.” Party Politics Vol.2, No. 1: 31-53.

KATZ, RICHARD S. “The Single Transferable Vote and Proportional Representation.” In Choosing an Electoral System, edited by Lijphart and Grofman, 135-46. New York: Praeger, 1984.

LAAKSO, MARKKU and REIN TAAGEPERA. “Proportional Representation in Scandinavia: Implications for Finland.” Scandinavian Political Studies 1 (1978), 43-60.

LADNER, ANDREAS and HENRY MILNER. “Do Voters Turn out More Under Proportional than Majoritarian Systems?  The Evidence from Swiss Communal Elections.”  Electoral Studies 18, no. 2. (June 1999) pp. 235-50.

LAKEMAN, ENID. Power to Elect: The Case for Proportional Representation. London: Heinemann, 1982.

LAKEMAN, ENID and JAMES LAMBERT. Voting in Democracies. London: Faber and Faber, 1959.

LIJPHART, AREND. Patterns of Democracy: Government forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.

LIJPHART, AREND. “Australian Democracy:  Modifying Majoritarianism?”  Australian Journal of Political Science 34 no. 3, (Nov. 1999), p. 313.

LIJPHART, AREND. Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945-1990. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994

LIJPHART, AREND. “Constitutional Choices for New Democracies.” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 72-84.

LIJPHART, AREND. “Double-Checking the Evidence.” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 3 (Summer 1991): 42-48.

LIJPHART, AREND. “The South African Electoral System.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 149-150.

LOENEN, NICK. Citizenship and Democracy: A Case for Proportional Representation. (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1997).

LUNDBERG, THOMAS. “Electoral Reform in Japan: New Law May not Live Up to Expectations.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 179-180.

MACBRIDE, JAMES P. “Positive Aspects of PR-STV for the Irish Political System.” Representation 34, No.1 (Winter 1996/97), 7-12.

MAIR, PETER. “The Question of Electoral Reform.” New Left Review, July/August, 1992, pp. 75-97.

McNEELY, THEODORE. “`Woman Power’ in Japan’s 1989 Upper House Election,” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

MILNER, HENRY(editor).  Making Every Vote Count: Reassessing Canada’s Electoral System.   Broadview Press, 2001.

MILNER, HENRY. “Obstacles to Electoral Reform in Canada.”American-Canadian Studies, Vol 24 (Spring, 1994): 39-55.

MILNER, HENRY. “Prospects for Electoral Reform in Canada: Lessons from Quebec’s Near-Adoption of PR in 1984.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 159-163.

MUDAMBI, RAM et al. “Plurality versus Proportional Representation: An Analysis of Sicilian Elections.” Public Choice, Vol.86: 341-57.

NAGLE, JACK H. “What Political Scientists Can Learn from the 1993 Electoral Reform in New Zealand.” PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 27, No. 3, September 1994, 525-529.

NAGLE, JACK H. “New Zealand’s Method for Representing Minorities.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 173-175.

NEWMAN, TERRY. “Tasmania’s Unique Electoral System.”Representation 34, No.1 (Winter 1996/97), 37-42.

POWELL, G. BINGHAM.   Elections as a Tool of Democracy:  Majoritarian and Proportional Visions. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000.

RADY MARTYN. “The 1994 Hungarian General Election.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 195-197.

REYNOLDS, ANDREW. “Constitutional Engineering in Southern Africa.” Journal of Democracy Vol. 6 (April 1995): 86-99.

REYNOLDS, ANDREW. “The Case for Proportionality.” Journal of Democracy Vol. 6 (October 1995): 117-24.

REYNOLDS, ANDREW. “Testing Voting Systems in South Africa.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 151-156.

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RULE, WILMA AND JOSEPH ZIMMERMAN (eds.). Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

RYDON, JOAN. “Representation of Women and Ethnic Minorities in the Parliaments of Australia and New Zealand,” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

SISK, TIMOTHY D. “Electoral System Choice in South Africa: Implications for Intergroup Moderation.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Summer 1995): 178-204.

SHUGART, MATTHEW S. “Minorities Represented and Unrepresented” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

TAAGEPERA, REIN. “Beating the Law of Minority Attrition,” in Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, edited by Rule and Zimmerman. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994.

WILDER, PAUL. “1994 British Elections to the European Parliament: Contrasting Plurality and PR.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 189-190.

WRIGHT, J.F.H. Mirror of the Nation’s Mind — A History of Australia’s Electoral Experiments. Sydney: Hale and Iremongner.

ZIMMERMAN, JOSEPH F. “PR in Ireland: A Firm Tradition.”National Civic Review 72, no. 11 (December 1983): 394-602.

The Case for Proportional Representation in the U.S. 

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Real Choices/New Voices: How Proportional Representation Elections Could Revitalize American Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Behind the Ballot Box:  A Citizen’s Guide to Voting Systems.  Praeger Publishers, 2000.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Proportional Representation: The Case for a Better Election System.(pamphlet) Northampton, MA: Crescent Street Press, 1997.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Proportional Representation: The Case for a Better Election System.(pamphlet) Northampton, MA: Crescent Street Press, 1997.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. “Elections in Which Every Vote Counts,” The Chronicle of Higher Education. January 12, 1996, B1.

AMY, DOUGLAS J. “Proportional Representation: A New Option for Local Elections,” National Civic Review 82, no. 3 (Summer 1993), 275-281.

ANDERSON, DENNIS. “Alternative Electoral Systems:  An Answer to Our Governing Crisis” in Paul Scheele (ed.), We Get What We Vote For . . . Or Do We? Westport, CN:  Praeger Publishing, 1999.

ANDERSON, JOHN. “A Better Approach to Boosting Minority Representation?” The Christian Science Monitor, July 6, 1993, 18.

ANDERSON, JOHN. “Break the Political Stranglehold.” The New York Times, Friday, July 24, 1992, op-ed page.

ANDERSON, JOHN. “How PR Would Open Up Politics.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp. 3-6.

BARBER,  KATHLEEN.  A Right to Representation: Proportional Election Systems for the Twenty-first Century. Columbus, OH: Ohio University Press, 2000.

BARBER, KATHLEEN (ed.). Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus, OH: Ohio University Press, 1995.

BARTA, ROBERT. “An Argument for PR from the Right.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995.Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995, pp. 13-14.

BEALE, LEWIS. “A Vote for Change: Some Insiders Say Proportional Representation Could Lead Us Out of Legislative Gridlock.” Los Angeles Times, Sunday, November 8, 1992, E2.

CENTER FOR VOTING AND DEMOCRACY. Voting and Democracy Report (1994, 1995, etc.). Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy.

COSSOLOTTO, MATTHEW. “A Jump Start for American Democracy: Proportional Representation Would Offer Us True Political Choices.” Utne Reader, November/December 1992, p. 22.

COSSOLOTTO, MATTHEW. “A Competitive Politics.” The Christian Science Monitor, Thursday, November 21, 1991, p. 18.

CULLEN, JIM. “Shaking Up Congress in Texas.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995. Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995, pp. 9-10.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD. “Cincinnati’s 1988 Proportional Representation Initiative.” Electoral Studies 9, no. 3 (1990): 217-25.

ENGSTROM, RICHARD, DELBERT A. TAEBEL, and RICHARD COLE. “Cumulative Voting as a Remedy for Minority Vote Dilution: The Case of Alamogordo, New Mexico.” Journal of Law and Politics 5 (1989): 469-97.

FAIN, HOWARD. “The Promise of Proportional Representation.” Peacework, no. 213 (November 1991): 8-9.

FAIN, HOWARD. “Let the Voters Decide: Testimony to a Massachusetts Committee on Redistricting.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995. Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995, pp. 25-26.

GUINIER, LANI. The Tyranny of the Majority: Fundamental Fairness in Representative Democracy. New York: Free Press, 1994.

GUINIER, LANI. “Don’t Scapegoat the Gerrymander,” The New York Times Magazine, January 8, 1995, 36-37.

HALLETT, GEORGE H. “Proportional Representation with the Single Transferable Vote: A Basic Requirement for Legislative Elections.” In Choosing an Electoral System, edited by Lijphart and Grofman, 113-20. New York: Praeger, 1984.

HILL, STEVEN. Fixing Elections: The Failure of America’s
Winner-Take-All Politics.  New York: Routledge, 2002.

HILL, STEVEN. “An Argument for PR from the Left.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp.11-12.

HILL, STEVEN. “Warring for the Heart of the Voting Rights Act.” The Christian Science Monitor, June 25, 1996.

HOFFMAN, ANDREW. “Time to Scrap District-Based Voting.” Roll Call. June 27, 1996.

INMAN, MARY A. “C.P.R. (Change through Proportional Representation): Resuscitating a Federal Electoral System.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 141 (1993): 1991-2053.

LIJPHART, AREND. “Reforming the House: Three Moderately Radical Proposals.” PS: Political Science and Politics. Vol. 31. No. 1. (March 1998), 10-13.

LIJPHART, AREND. “PR vs. Single-Member Districts in States: Testimony before the California State Legislature.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995), pp.23-24.

LIND, MICHAEL. “Alice Doesn’t Vote Here Any More.” Mother Jones, Vol. 23, No. 2, March/April 1998, 52-55.

LIND, MICHAEL. “A Radical Plan to Change American Politics.” The Atlantic, August 1992, 73-83.

LONOWSKI, DELMER. “A Return to Tradition: Proportional Representation in Tribal Government.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 18, no. 1 (1994): 147-163.

LOW-BEER, JOHN R. “The Constitutional Imperative for Proportional Representation.” Yale Law Journal 94, no. 1 (November 1984): 163-88.

MACKLIN, PHILIP A. “Election Systems and their Consequences.” Oxford, Ohio: Physics Department, Miami University, 1989. Photocopy.

MEYER, GERALD. “Proportional Representation and the Left: The Urgency of Real Reform.” Against the Current. Sept.-Oct. 1996: 14-18.

MORTIMER, LEE, “Proportional Voting Plan Would Safeguard Fairness and Diversity.” Durham, N.C., Herald-Sun, February 16, 1992, editorial page.

PILDES, RICHARD H. “Gimme Five.” The New Republic, March 1, 1993, 16-17.

PILLSBURY, GEORGE. “Preference Voting and Voter Turnout.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995.Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995, pp. 79-80.

“Proportional Representation.” Column in current editions of the National Civic Review.

REDING, ANDREW. “Proportional Representation and American Democracy.” Peace and Democracy News, Winter 1992/93.

REDING, ANDREW. “Let’s Dump Single-Member Electoral Districts.” The Christian Science Monitor, August 8, 1995. 18.

RICHIE, ROBERT. “Full Representation: The Future of Proportional Election Systems.” National Civic Review , Vol. 87, No. 1, Spring 1998, 85-95.

RICHIE, ROBERT. “Preference Voting vs. Cumulative Voting: Preference Voting is the Better System for Local Government.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995. Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995, pp. 73-76.

RICHIE, ROB, STEVEN HILL, et al. Whose Vote Count?  Boston:  Beacon Press, 2001.

RICHIE, ROB and STEVEN HILL. “Proportional Representation – Are Winner-Take-All Elections Fair?” Social Policy, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Summer 1996): 25-37.

ROSENBERG, PAUL. “Something to Vote For: Real Representation.” Christian Science Monitor, Nov. 7, 1994, 19.

ROSENBLUM, DARREN. “Geographically Sexual?: Advancing Lesbian and Gay Interests Through Proportional Representation.” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review. Vol. 31 (1996): 119-154.

SKILLEN, JAMES. “Toward Just Representation: A Proposal for Revitalizing our System of Political Participation.” Paper available from Association for Public Justice, 321 Eighth St., N.E., Washington, D.C., 20002.

SKILLEN, JAMES. “Public Discourse and Electoral Representation.” In Voting and Democracy Report 1995. Washington, D.C.: The Center for Voting and Democracy, 1995, pp.17-22.

SMITH, SAM. “Unrigging America’s Elections.” The Progressive Review, November 1992, 1-4.

STEPHENS, V. JERONE. “The Return of Proportional Representation to Cincinnati: Can It be Done? Can It be Done?” Paper delivered at meeting of the Ohio Association of Economists and Political Scientists, Columbus, Ohio, May 1-2, 1987.

STILL, EDWARD. “Alternatives to Single Member Districts.” In Minority Vote Dilution, edited by Davidson, 249-67. Washington D.C.: Howard University Press, 1984.

USA TODAY, “A Route to Fairer Voting.” USA Today, June 30, 1995, p. 12A.

WEAVER, LEON. “Women and Minorities in the Proportional Representation System of New York Community School Boards.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, September 1989.

WEAVER, LEON. “Two Cheers for Proportional Representation in Cambridge: A Preliminary Report on Research in Progress.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Denver, September 2-5, 1982.

ZIMMERMAN, JOSEPH F. “Alternative Local Election Systems.” National Civic Review 79, no. 1 (January-February 1990): 23-36.

ZIMMERMAN, JOSEPH F. “Electoral Reform Needed to End Political Alienation.” National Civic Review 60, no. 1 (January 1971): 6-11, 21.

Criticisms of Proportional Representation 

AMY, DOUGLAS J. Real Choices/New Voices: How Proportional Representation Elections Could Revitalize American Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Chapter 9.

BARNES, JOHN. “Proportional Deception.” National Review, July 20, 1992.

BRAMS, STEVEN J. and PETER C. FISHBURN. “Some Logical Defects of the Single Transferable Vote.” In Choosing an Electoral System: Issues and Alternatives, edited by Lijphart and Grofman, 147-51. New York: Praeger, 1984.

COX, GARY. “Instability?” Boston Review, March/April 1998. http://www-polisci.mit.edu/bostonreview/BR23.1/

FEREJOHN, JOHN. “Cautionary Notes.” Boston Review, March/April 1998. http://www-polisci.mit.edu/bostonreview/BR23.1/

HAIN, PETER, Proportional Misrepresentation. Aldershot: Wildwood House, 1986.

HERMENS, FERDINAND A. “From Tyranny to Democracy: Fragile or Strong?” Freedom at Issue. May-June 1990, p. 7.

HERMENS, FERDINAND A. Democracy or Anarchy? A Study of Proportional Representation. South Bend, Ind.: Notre Dame, 1941.

LARDEYRET, GUY. “The Problem with PR.” Journal of Democracy 2 no. 3, (Summer 1991): 30-39.

MAUDE, ANGUS. Why Electoral Change? London: Conservative Political Centre, 1982.

NORTON, PHILIP. “The Case for First-Past-the-Post.”  Representation 34 no. 2 (Spring/Summer 1997) 84-88.

QUADE, QUENTIN L. “PR and Democratic Statecraft.” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 3 (Summer 1991): 36-41.

QUINN, JACK, DONALD J. SIMON, and JONATHAN B. SALLET. “Redrawing Political Maps: An America of Groups?”Washington Post, March 24, 1991, p. C1.

PINTO-DUSCHINSKY, MICHAEL. “Send the Rascals Packing:  Defects of Proportional Representation and the Virtues of the Westminster Model” Representation  36 no. 2 (Summer 1999), 117-126.

TAYLOR, PETER J. “The Case for Proportional Tenure: A Defense of the British Electoral System.” In Choosing an Electoral System, edited by Lijphart and Grofman, 53-58. New York: Praeger, 1984.

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